The Liberals

The 1890 strike was a failure but it did create a huge amount of sympathy for the labour cause. Ballance as leader of the Liberals was able to organise an opposition to the Government. In the subsequent election Atkinsons Government was toppled by Ballance in conjunction with several Union backed MP's. In the interlude between the election and the new Government, Atkinson stacked the Legislative council with his Conservative supporters. This initially slowed Liberal reforms and created a constitutional crisis in which the Governor General was forced to accept the appointees that Ballance wanted to make to correct the imbalance.

Ballances slow decline into illness also slowed the Liberals so that much of their most memorable legislation appeared after the 1893 election and Ballance had died before his preferred replacement, Stout, could take his seat. This left the leadership open for Seddon to take the reigns which he would retain for the next 13 years.

Ballance had surrounded himself with a talented Cabinet which included , Seddon, Pember -Reeves, Stout and McDonald. they are most famous for their groundbreaking legislation that included the Electoral Act of 1893 which gave Women the vote, the 1895 Arbitration and Conciliation Act (Pember-Reeves)and the 1898 Pension Act.

McDonald was also held responsible for breaking up the "Great Estates". However this was not the savage attack on the rich (on behalf of the 'Small man' )that it is portrayed as. The Depression had hit overstretched run holders, many of whom were forced into receivership by their Banks. The Liberals were offered several times more land in the South than they purchased and the most of the land they did acquire came from Maori in the north.

The Arbitration Act gave recognition to Unions and many took the chance to work through the process. As a result there was relative calm on the industrial front giving the appearance all was well. Pember -Reeves left almost immediately for London, his fabian background does not always appear to have seen him able to work with the caucus more moderate caucus.

The Pension Act was a favourite of Seddons, who could see the benefits for the many (now indigent) elderly gold miners. However it was only available to persons of good character, who could prove their age and who were not Chinese. It is an interesting idea that this act reflected New Zealands growing egalitarianism and desire to give everyone a fair go (perhaps even an extension of Phillips 'Mateship' or Belichs 'Crew Culture'.)

The Liberals faced little challenge at the subsequent elections because there was little in the way of an organised opposition. Thus although they lost support in 1896 they held onto power. Incresaingly as well Seddon came to dominate the party creating a top down style of leadership, surrounding himself with 'lesser' men who tended to agree with him.

The Long Depression and Labour Issues.

The Long Depression of course began before the collapse of the Bank of Glasgow in 1878. Virtually all of the available land in the South was now occupied by run holders. Sheer greed meant that most runholders had overgrazed their land (too many sheep for to long). Continual burn-offs and the rabbit plague had left a lot of land bare and unproductive. There was nowhere left to expand into. The drop in world wide wool prices hit the overstretched mortagages of the runholders hard and pushed many to the wall. The drop in prices and the collapse of the rural economy led to the depression.

We've been through this in class but remember the downward spiral...

The Depression took almost 5 years to be felt in the North. Why? Because, the north was less reliant on sheep, and Maori land continued to come onto the market allowing that economy to expand. Eventually the depression did arrive but the advent of refrigeration in the ealry 1880's also helped to aleviate the economic downturn.

Older Historians (Sinclair, Oliver) have described the period as a depression but Belich has called it a stagnation. Technically a depression is a continual series of regression (prices & wages fall).

Another effect was in the area of employment. In the South a lot of money was withdrawn from the sheep stations and needed new investment areas. There was still plenty of wool about and it was cheap. Money was pushed towards processing the wool. Woolen Mills sprang up and were filled with women whose wages and conditions were kept down.

Eventually Reverend Waddell gave his sermon on the 'Sin of Cheapness' and the Sweating Commision was created in the wake of public outrage that Sweating had followed them to this 'Better Britain'. This possibility struck a raw nerve in the minds of settlers whose aspirations did not include the poverty and its attendant problems. The Royal Commission report denied the presence of sweating although many of the 'necessary conditions' existed in Dunedin and other southern towns. The Tailoresses Union was widely supported and soon other Unions appeared to protect workers and to employ collective bargaining as a bargaining tool.

In areas where Unions had similar interests they grouped together, the Maritime Unions - Wharfies, Seamen (stop laughing Rowan) and Railway workers had common interests (employers) and in 1889 chose to join their equivalent Australian Unions in a strike. They lost.

However it awoke a underlying class conciousness and political awareness in settlers especially those who had redently acquired the vote. Having a say in Government gave many people the belief that their MP's should actually represent them.

It was this that led to the election of the Liberals.

Timeline: Political Change

1833

James Busby arrives in the Bay of Islands as British Resident in New Zealand – a junior consular representative with little power.

1834

Northern chiefs gather at Busby's house at Waitangi to choose a ‘Flag of the United Tribe of New Zealand’.

1835

A Declaration of Independence of New Zealand is drawn up by Busby without authorisation from his superiors. This asserts the independence of New Zealand, with all sovereign power and authority resting with the hereditary chiefs and tribes. The declaration is eventually signed by 52 Maori chiefs.

1839

The British government appoints William Hobson as consul to New Zealand, with instructions to obtain sovereignty with the consent of a 'sufficient number' of chiefs.

1840

The Treaty of Waitangi is signed on 6 February by about 40 chiefs. By September another 500 chiefs in different parts of the country have signed. On 21 May Lieutenant-Governor Hobson proclaims British sovereignty over all of New Zealand: over the North Island on the basis of cession through the Treaty of Waitangi, and over the southern islands by right of discovery. New Zealand becomes a dependency of New South Wales, a British Crown Colony whose governor is Sir George Gipps.

1841

New Zealand becomes a separate Crown Colony, ending its connection with New South Wales. Communicating with London takes many months.

1846

New Zealand is divided into two provinces, New Ulster and New Munster.

1852

The New Zealand Constitution Act (UK) establishes a system of representative government for New Zealand. Six (eventually 10) provinces are created, with elected superintendents and councils. At the national level, a General Assembly is established, consisting of a Legislative Council appointed by the Crown and a House of Representatives elected every five years by males over the age of 21 who own, lease or rent property of a certain value.

1853

The House of Representatives' first 37 MPs are elected.

1854

The First Parliament meets in Auckland.

1856

‘Responsible’ government begins in New Zealand, with an executive supported by a majority in House of Representatives. The Governor retains responsibility for defence and Maori affairs.

1858

The Waikato chief Te Wherowhero becomes the first Maori King, taking the name Potatau. The rise of Te Kingitanga reflects Maori desires for a leader to unite the tribes, protect land from further sales and make laws for Maori.

1864

The colonial government asserts its responsibility for Maori affairs.

1867

Four Maori parliamentary seats are created (initially as a temporary measure for five years), with universal suffrage for Maori males over 21. The first Maori elections are held in 1868.

1876

The provinces are abolished, leaving central government as the single legislative authority. Hundreds of local bodies soon come into being.

1879

Universal suffrage is introduced for all males over 21.

1893

Universal suffrage introduced for women over 21 (including Maori). New Zealand becomes the first self-governing country to grant the right to vote to all adult women.

1900

New Zealand claims the Cook Islands and annexes several other territories in the early twentieth century.

Situations Essay Answers

Hi, sorry if you've been waiting but I've been at the EBIS production tonight. A great show that somehow combines Maori mythology with Lewis Carroll, the Brothers Grimm and Roald Dahl, topped off with Krumping and Hip Hop. All in the name of saving the earth.Anyway the situations essays are also now available on Moodle - these are the questions 1 and 2 that students answered.

Don't forget the shared lunch for both classes Friday!!!

Decisions Essays Answers

Rather than photocopy endlessly I thought I'd put resources on Moodle for you to download. Tonight I've put the Decisions essays (1, 2,3 and 5) that students answered in the exam. This requires a lot of scanning and OCR so I'll try to put the Situations essays online for you tomorrow...

Cheers

Examitis

Hopefully you've all recovered from the grueling three hour exam - well for the half dozen who managed the entire time. It was good to see so many hang in there for so long though. Most of you will be preparing for your next exam so it will be the weekend before you get a chance to check out the exam and ask yourself where you could have done better.

Now is not the time to become agitated about how badly you think you might have done. Better to look ahead to how you can improve both your knowledge and your practice.

KNOWLEDGE.

Lets face it its almost impossible to become an expert in everything that happened between 1800 and 1900 in New Zealand. Already most of you have chosen a period to emphasise, but are you studying smart?

Preparation is the answer. Careful preparation is the key. Think about what you did in the lead up to this exam, what did you study? Almost no-one took away their write-on Notes...

1. Did you look at the lists of essay questions in your booklet?
2. Did you look at the list of essays you got from me last week?
3. Did you compare what was asked for in each question and what might have been used to answer the questions?
4. Did you look for commonalities in these questions and their answers?
5. Did you consider the generalisations that might have helped you?
6. Did you look at the essay format of the 2004-5 papers?
7. Did you ask questions of other students?
8. Did you ask ME questions?
9. When are you going to start revising for the end of the year - about 7 weeks away?
   

PRACTICE.

1. How did you prepare for the exam?
2. How many hours did you put in?
3. How and where did you study?
4. Did you get plenty of sleep?
5. Did you organise a study group?
6. Did you eat properly beforehand?
7. Did you bring the right equipment?
8. Did you read the questions?
9. Did you have a plan about which parts you would do?
10. Did you stick to a time plan?
11. Did you check your answers - spelling and grammar especially.
12. Did you slip any cash into your answer booklet?

Cheers.

Examine a significant Decision made by people.

The first part of this essay asks you to describe factors that contributed to a decision. This means initially explaining what happened in the lead up to the decision being made. Then, why did people make the decision and who was involved. Merit ask for accuracy, meaning getting names, places and dates right. Excellence asks for perceptive which means explaining what factors are most important while showing some insight and depth of understanding.

For the second part Achieved ask you to Describe the consequences and simply expects you to describe how it might have affected the different parties. Merit ask you to evaluate the consequences, and is seeking your view so say whether it is good or bad and justify your answer with evidence. Merit asks for Comprehensively which means explaining a variety of consequences and rating them, with evidence.

An appropriate format expects formal language and appropriate structure, introduction, body and conclusion.

REMEMBER the simple things. Read and answer the question asked. Do not use information that is irrelevant especially if you are trying to pad out your answer. If there are two parts to the question, answer BOTH parts.

"DESCRIBE" means a factual outline.
"EVALUATE" expects your viewpoint
"EXPLAIN the significance" means evaluate several factors/consequences.
"WHY..." requires reasons (plural).
"To what EXTENT..." requires a conclusion of 'how much' ie importance.

Watch for TIME limits or CONTENT limits.

GOOD LUCK.

The significant historical Situation essay.

The Assessment Criteria for Achieved for this essay expects you to describe an important situation in its historical context. Secondly describe how the situation changed over time. It must be structured and organised in an appropriate format.

The first part means explaining what the situation is and the time frame it is set in. (Context). Merit expects 'Detail' which means discussing the parties involved, being careful with correct names and dates. Excellence expects discussion of the differing viewpoints held by parties concerned.

Changes in the situation expects a description of change over time - being careful to follow any time frame (restrictions) in the question (watch for 'before' and 'after') as you will get no credit for information that is not pertinent to the dates expected. Merit asks for an evaluation which means making a judgment, looking at changes and stating whether they were good, bad and using evidence to back up your ideas. Excellence is looking for 'comprehensively evaluate... influenced people' which simply means how changes in the situation affected people from a range of backgrounds. Some reference to Historiography may be useful.

The correct format expects an essay with introduction, body and a conclusion. Merit expects you to develop an argument, while Excellence asks for a convincing argument. Again names and dates are expected to be accurate (Maori names especially). Being logical means following a logical series of paragraphs that build on your argument - chronological order is probably better.

The 2005 (90656) Resource Exam (Answers)

As promised here are the (abbreviated) answers to the 2005 paper:

To get Merit you need to provide informed (Your own knowledge) and for Excellence you need perceptive analysis. (Describe How or Why events happened/the results of ...)

POINTS OF VIEW & HISTORICAL IDEAS

Resource A - The two editorials

Identify Different points of view - how and why they are held.

You were expected to identify that the 'Lyttleton Times' identifies the Liberals as winners of the election because voters 'stayed true to Liberal principles', while the 'Poverty Bay Herald' believes the Government won and still 'have a majority'.

Merit or Excellence answers identify Ballance (Liberals) and Atkinson (Continous Ministry)as the opposing leaders. The Liberals then began a program of social legislation. The differing points of view may reflect regional support for the Liberal with much of its support in the South Island. Key pieces of legislation covered land reform, suffrage and industrial relations. (named legislation with general discussion of their effects)


Resource B - Canterbury Wheat Fields

What economy and political developments in NZ's led to changes in Canterbury farming.

You should identify the 'shrinkage' field in 1863 averaged 30,000 acres, with much of the wheat going to Otago (Miners) by 1903 the average was down to 350 acres with a greater diversification (variety) of crops.

Merit or Excellence answers note the wheat boom of the 1870's and 1880's brought about by the rise in populaltion (thank-you Vogel) development of Infrastructure (road & rail) allowed more what to be transported. In the 1890's the Liberals broke up the the Great Estates betting more 'small men' onto the land. Refrigeration also made small farms more economic.

HISTORICAL RELATIONSHIPS

Resource C - The Moutoa Battle Memorial.

How perspectives (viewpoints) of past events have changed over time.

You were expected to identify when the battle was fought it was between those fighting for 'law and order' and 'fanatics and barbarians'. Today it is seen as a civil war fought between relatives.

Merit or Excellence answers identifies the Upper Whanganui Iwi accepting Pai Marire (Hau Hau) and coming into conflict with the Lower Whanganui Iwi who wanted to protect the advantage they gained from having the Pakeha nearby. The memorial is from the perspective of Pakeha who supported kupapa tribes. The Te Papa exhibit is from the viewpoint of the Whangaui Iwi showing the grief and tension of the time which is reflected in recent occupations at Moutoa Gardens.

Resource D - The Sin of Cheapness.

According to Reverend Waddell the lust for bargains, drove down prices, leading to lower wages and for many workers to be below the poverty line. (think todays Middle Class consumerism and the Big Red Shed style wages)

Merit or Excellence answers noted that Dunedin was harder hit by the Long Depression because of the Gold rushes and Vogel immigration. The Depression hurt the South hardest, with factors beyond the employers control. As prices fell employers were forced to cut wages and conditions. Waddell's agitation led to inquiries and to increased support for the Liberals in 1890. Belich has described this period as the 'Long Stagnation'. Real incomes fell.

THE USEFULNESS OR RELIABILITY OF EVIDENCE

For EACH of the following 2 resources you MUST make a statement about how useful they might be and give an example.

Resource E - A Migrants Journey.

It could be a good starting point for a historian. On initial viewing this resources appear to show both positive and negative effects of migration (requires examples). It does not seem overly biased.

Excellence answers noted much of the material supplied by Migration agents was heavily biased (remember the 2 posters 'Here and There' and 'The Needle Woman'?) and this seems to provide a more balanced viewpoint. It was published in NZ and probably reflects a common experience. It would be very useful to an historian.

Resource F - Governor Grey

This source identifies Greys achievements in his first term as Governor but the language and tone are biased, and inaccurate. As a source it is flawed and would not be useful.

An Excellence answer may identify the idea that this book is all about Empire not New Zealand. Also note the patronising tone of the material towards Maori (crafty and insolent) . Belich has noted the British did not 'win' the Northern War and that is the reason Heke did not have to give up any land. Grey undermined the Treaty in his treatment of Te Rauparaha (Kidnapped & held without trial), he did not uphold the Treaty, the source is thus not reliable.

Audio Feeds or Podcasts

In class we talked about listening to relevant podcasts - I haven't managed that quite yet but there are a number of interesting audio feeds available including one on Vogel. If you get a chance have a listen and let me know. Others will go up next week as I get a chance to update things. They are on the School Intranet (Moodle Site).

Good luck for the exams check back for some ideas/hints for the essays and resources.

Cheers

Julius Vogel and his Scheme.

Vogel is an important figure in our history and yet the bread is better known than he is. He arrived as a Gold miner, was editor of the ODT and became a local politician in Otago, championing the idea of secession when southerners became irate at the idea that their taxes were paying for the northern war. When he moved to central Government he would champion the rights of the Government over the Provinces, eventually having them abolished when they got in his way.

His scheme which he proposed as Treasurer in 1869 was simple. Borrow some money, use some of it to pay for Migrants to come to New Zealand and the rest to build the infrastructure needed to support the larger population as well as opening up more of the country to settlement. The migrants would expand the economy and generate more income, paying for both the interest and the loans themselves.

Initially the scheme was received well. Almost universally it was seen as a way of boosting the colony and making many people rich. Vogel wanted to borrow 10m pounds but ended up lending 20m, a liability that would weigh heavily on the Government for many years. The road and rail networks were built and a lot of land opened up to settlers.

Areas like the Wairarapa (70 Mile Bush) were opened up, and the population was doubled. new towns like Dannevirke appeared and prospered. The economy expanded but the Depression pushed down commodity prices so that the economy stagnated with real incomes reducing despite wages increasing. (ie Inflation was higher that wages). The population now included a more diverse ethnicities, including the more well known Scandanavians, but also Italians and French settlers arrived.

The scheme was poorly run, money was squandered, road and rail networks were not always built where they were needed - often favouring well placed politicians and their favourites. Few of the 100,000+ people were suited to the type of work expected of them, and many preferred to stay closer to towns or cities, ignoring the opportunities in the rural areas. This created a new (but old) phenomenon, slums. An evil many settlers thought they had left behind in Europe. Older colonists viewed them as 'scum' who were a liability and a hinderance to progress, they were angry when the expected benefits - improved wages, higher land values did not always eventuate. This was not helped as the depression hit in the latter part of the decade.

Politicians who had supported Vogel abandoned him and he eventually left for London.

Ensure you read the Vogel handout!

Dairying - the Refrigeration Revolution

Before 1882 Dairying had been a minor industry. It was a small scale localised operation run out of small mixed farms. Poor infrastructure (esp. transportation) mean that milk could only be supplied to local towns or villages. Processed into butter or cheese it could travel further but not much, especially in the summer. There was also the problem of consistency, each farmer (or his wife) had their own recipe so that every batch was different.

Dairy farms were thus generally small affairs dealing to the local population and barely making a living. In the Taranaki, Chew Chong, a chinese trader kept many small farmers from starvation when he began to purchase a local fungus from them. When refrigeration was introduced small dairy factory's sprang up to support the growing dairy industry and the Taranaki was ideally suited to this. Chong built one of the first factories, continuing to support his clients. He preferred to take their milk and produce his own cheese and butter, a more consistent product that sold more readily. Later co-operatives forced him out of the business but he remained a highly regarded member of the community.

Dairying opened up the Taranaki and other areas, giving many of the small farmers a leg up the economic ladder. The creation of co-operatives gave them the strength of many and allowed them to apply economies of scale. Wool was hard pressed by the depression but Dairying resulted in an economic expansion rather than retrenchment and the bankruptcy that devastated some parts of the South.

The export of dairy products helped to diversify the economy and expanded the settlement of New Zealand, along with the expanding infrastructure that pushed Europeans into every corner of the country. As noted in your handout New Zealand went from a single commodity economy (Wool) to a treble (Wool, Meat and Dairy Products). Expansion of this industry through the 1880s meant it was well placed to take advantage as the 'Long depression' dragged to an end.

So the effects of dairying can be summed up with the opening up of the North island, increased settlement with improved transport (road and rail) and communications. The development of new industries including dairy factories and abbatoirs for the processing of meat (creating more employment opportunities) . The expansion and diversification of the economy and finally the destruction of the Kahikatea (White Pine) which was used in the production of boxes for butter. (aka the butter-box wood)

Pastoralism - Refrigeration

The wool period was responsible for opening up large areas of the South Island and created a new class of land owners. By the end of the 1860's most of the South Island was owned by a relatively small number of families. The Sheep stations were enormous with tens of thousands of sheep supplying vast quantitie's of wool, but relatively little meat. It turns out Merino meat is not very tasty. Apart from parts of the Wairarapa and the Hawkes Bay sheep farming made little impact in the North island, due in part to the less suitable heavily forested land and the reluctance of Maori to sell their land. The confiscations and the Land Court would in the main remove the Maori from this equation, but the forest would slow down any development.

By the 1870's the growth in Britains population and its increased earning power created a demand for better quality food from around the world, increasingly they demanded meat - fresh or frozen. Argentina had already sent shipments across the Atlantic with some success. Australia sent its first shipment in 1871, giving sheep breeders in New Zealand hope that they to could establish a new industry. The voyage of the 'Dunedin' in 1882 is accorded little real significance in our history certainly less than it deserves, and yet it is the watershed/tipping point in our history.

Only one carcass was rejected at the end of that first voyage, and reports were very favourable. So successful was this venture that British farmers demanded that shipments be labelled as 'New Zealand Mutton'. Initially we sent only Merino and mainly mutton, but quickly adapted to british demand for lamb. This worked both ways, the British got tastier meat in small (oven size) portions, we got to send more carcasses which were worth more. We also changed the breeds of sheep, Merino remained on some Runs producing high quality wool, while Corriedale and other breeds were producing a mix of wool and meat. In 1882 we sent 35,000 carcasses, by 1900 it was 3.5m per annum.

The downstream effect of refrigeration lay in the new industry surrounding the killing and processing of the meat. Refrigeration led to Cool stores to keep the meat, under the Vogels schemes, road and rail became a necessity to transport the meat to port where it was stored.

While the main trunk line connected the main centers, branchline's were used to connect the hinterland to the ports.

In many respects refrigeration created a new demand for land, but land was still hard to find. However the Depression which arrived in 1879 with the collapse of the Bank of Glasgow had already begun to impact with many of the stations falling into financial hardship. The new exports helped but many were to over stretched and became bankrupt. It would take the Liberals to free up land for the 'little' man.

Pastoralism - The Wool Period

As we discussed in class Pastoralism is the farming of pasture ( aka grass). In New Zealand this has traditionally been in conjunction with either sheep or cattle. Before 1882 pastoralism was associated with sheep (and only Merino) and the wool they produced. In farming terms this is called extensive sheep farming. The farms are large and a long way from town. The farms had their own name 'stations' borrowed from their equivalent in Australia and most likely carried across with the earliest sheep farmers who came over to the South Island in the 1850's. This was the also the origin of the term "Cockie" for farmer (Refering to the Cockatiels that infested farmland especially at harvest time).

This period from the 1850's was the 'wool period' when the imported Merino sheep ruled the tussock lands of the South Island, and the flat lands of the Wairarapa and Hawkes Bay. This period saw the creation of vast estates especially in the South Island. Using the Australian model it was a simple matter of claiming land with the Provinical Government and leaseholding the land, often with the view of making it freehold as quickly as possible. Although as we will discover they did not always own all of the land they controlled. The key was liquidity and the creation of huge flocks of sheep. New Zealand's climate provided warm weather and plentiful rain, which meant plenty of grass, a few ewes and a ram did the rest.

The Stations needed large pools of labour, especially at shearing time. Shearing gangs travelled with the season southward to stations as they were needed. Wool could then be stored and transported to port for shipping to Britain. Wool developed a new market in coastal transportation. All of this created vast wealth for a favoured few and left a bitter taste in the mouths of many migrants who found land difficult to acquire in the 1870's. In the south this wealth tended to dominate local and later national politics.

In 1882 this all changed.

Back to Business - Timber

Sorry its been a bit hectic after the trip to Rotorua. Its taken a while to catch up with all of the work especially your marking for your Research assignment. It was a pleasure to read many of the articles you wrote and I was pleased to read the evaluations where most acknowledged the value of this work for the end of year exams. Now that that is out of the way its back to business. In the two weeks since we've covered a couple of key topics, Timber and Pastoralism.

First up the Timber Industry.

Early timber trade centres in the north. Its based mainly around the north and especially the Hokianga. Many ships called in around New Zealand to pick up timber in ad hoc arrangements but a real 'trade' developed in the Far North. It was aimed at extracting wood for ships spars and later developed into cut wood for the Sydney buidling trade.

Kauri was the main timber felled later as building trade in Australia and Auckland - the shift to Auckland resulted in an explosion in building for the new Capital. The Bush frontier would last well into the next century.

The trade created a new type of New Zealander, the Bushman. Living on the edge of the bush (and sometimes well inside it) they were almost devoid of female company resulting in the idea of'mateship' which was also developing in Australia. Groups of men living for long periods in close proximity and in occupations which were extremely dangerous meant that real and long lasting friendships were created.

Good manners and behaviour was expected and any who failed to follow the (often unwritten) rules would not last long in the camp. The worst that could be said of a man was that he did not pull his weight on the job or that he was a thief or a cheat (gambling and alcohol was strictly banned in most camps). Any of these failings could mean that no-one would employ a man and he would have to leave the district and hope his reputation did not follow him to his new job.

Miles Fairburn has used some examples to justify his idea of transience and lack of community. Subsequent research has seriously challenged this with many examples of 'mates' or familial groups working together for many years - sometimes for decades. The sense of community extended to welfare, injured workers were ferried out by mates who would carry thier friend out on their shoulders or backs. If a death occurred leaving a family, the ir effects (clothes, tools etc) would be auctioned with their mates often paying well over the odds for the second-hand gear.

Timber saw the development of new technology, Pit Saws gave way to Steam and Bullocks were sometimes replaced by Bush trams (converted Traction Engines!!!) The Timberjack was invented to assist the movemnet of the giant logs, as was the the Kauri Dam to move logs through hilly terrain, especially where the Cordoroy Roads and Bullocks could not.

The Timber industry opened up new areas, assisting in the spread of farming and established many small towns in new area, especially the 70 Mile bush between Wellington and the Hawkes Bay, the Central North Island and in the Taranaki. The Sawmill that followed the workers attracted other small businesses . If the timber lasted long enough a small town could develop, sometimes it might be able to withstand the loss of the trade and continue to flourish as farming replaced the trees. ( Dannevirke or Featherston). If the timber ran out too quickly the town might not survive the loss. (Anyone remember Mauriceville?)

Another Video!

Here is Video supplied by Clare.



Cheers

Swoop!

Here is the link to the youtube version of the photo montage.

Rotorua and Work

While I am in Rotorua you have to complete a practice Resources section of the exam as well as one essay (Line 3) or two essays (Line 1). There are plenty of booklets in M409. Please ensure a teacher, Ms McDonald is closest, opens up for you while I am away.

Otherwise I will see most of you at 9am at the steps of the Hunter Building on Friday the 17th. Please DO NOT be late. If you are I may disown you and make you sit with the Onslow kids!

I may look at the Rotorua Museum(s) if I get a chance and see what I can dig up, it is Arawa country after all.

Have a good week and I will see you at Vic.

Protest, Prophets and Parihaka

The last handout on the Maori Prophetic Movements outlines the ideas of when and why the Prophets emerged. In many indigenous societies Prophets emerged after they had suffered loss of land and culture after encountering Europe. The handout makes the point that some prophets often emerged prior to such depredations. Papahurihuria in Northland is an example of this.

There seems to have been two types of prophetic movements, those that looked more toward the Old Testament - Jehovah the wrathful God who somplimented their ideas of Utu. These were as Belich notes 'biblical; movements often seeing Maori as Jews (Huria) and taking Saturday as their Sabbath. Te Kootis Ringatu Chuch seems to have been such a movement.

Other movements were more syncretic, absorbing the idea of the New Testament and its more peaceful and forgiving aspects. Pai Marire (Good and Peaceful) created by Te Ua and most often associated with Te Whiti and Tohu is an example of this.

Both Ringatu and Pai Marire also became associated with armed rebellion and thus were seen by Settlers as examples of Maori resistance and barbarism. Titokowaru became associated with the revival of cannibalism (although mainly ritualised and he never actually took part), while the eating of Volkners eyes also panicked many settlers. Te Kootis massaacre of Maori and Pakeha near Gisborne mean that settlers saw him and Ringatu as a real threat.

This meant that Parihaka despite professing to be peaceful was always on a hiding to nothing. Many settlers wanted Te Whiti and his followers put in their place. Because it attracted hundreds of followers from around the country it was seen as a cente of dissent and opposition to European hegemony. Bryce as Native Minister wanted this dealt with, he resigned when the Government wouldn't give him clearance to do so. He returned witha a change in Government and took his 1600 volunteers in to clear the village.

He was met with singing and dancing but still arrested the Prophets, destroyed the village and its cultivations, and dispersed their followers.

Thus ended Parihaka.

Scholarship and other stuff

I'm beginning to think that the Scolarship class is jinxed. Unfortunately I woke up on Friday morning quite ill so missed the 9am kick-off. One of the downsides to teaching is having to set relief when you're sick so I had to think of something quick. I was really pleased to see so many of the Line 3 class took the opportunity to try out the forums on the Moodle course. Some very interesting ideas and some discussion developing.

The assignments are due this week.

Course News

Some updates.

The Internal Assessments are due together on August 6 (Line 1) and August 7 (Line 3).

If you have any issues about the assignments you need to see me ASAP. Several people have given me their research to check. I've been pleased to see how well they have done.

The Level 3 History (NZ option) Day at Victoria University is August 17th 9.30-12.30. I will give you more details as they arrive.

The Moodle Course is here. I'll try to work to get more resources online for you.

Assignment II

3.2 requires either an article from the NZ's Heritage or a plate from the Historical Atlas. Hopefully your research in to the focussing questions has given you the opportunity to discover a range of resources and also given you the chance to decide on how to complete the presentation. The reason we spent so long on getting the the focussing questions right was to ensure you could use them to frame the main headings within the presentation, good questions allow you to break them down to the sub-headings. Ensure you have some relevant visual images/maps/cartoons/photographs/paintings, hopefully one per subheading.

The due date has been extended. If you weren't in class for the announcement, then come and see me, don't indulge in ill-informed or ill-founded speculation. BOTH 3.1 and 3.2 are due together.

RESEARCH ASSIGNMENT

By now you should be finishing your research by now. The important part of the first couple of weeks was finding a good topic. Once this was decided then creating a good set of Topic Questions was supposed to allow you to explore the question.

Almost everyone in the classes has checked in their Appendices 1-3 which leaves just 4 and 5 to complete for 3.1. If you have not done this then you need to see me as early as possible next term

It is important to remember that Appendix 4 requires FIVE resources (properly sourced!) for each Topic Question. (that’s 15 in total for the mathematically challenged!). Text, Maps Photos, Paintings tables etc. all count as sources but should be referred to within your presentation.

Appendix 5 is of course just your evaluation but you must ensure you answer as much of it as you can – and in depth, a single sentence or a statement without explanation or examples is not enough.

In terms of time its probably best if these were completed by the end of the holidays.
That leaves you the next three weeks to complete 3.2 the presentation of the information. Its important that you create as closely as possible a "New Zealand’s Heritage" style magazine article OR a plate from the "Historical Atlas".

For each Topic Question should form a major heading of the text with each broken into subheadings. This should allow you to address a range of historical ideas in your presentation.

Remember that we are BACK in class now and will be completing the section on the Gold Miners and other developments before returning to the latter part of the NZ Wars.

Gold Mining

During the 19th Century gold held an incredible hold over the imaginations of people. For many it was a quick route to wealth. As a result there were massive gold rushes in various parts of the world. The first was to California in 1848, the prospectors who took part were called ‘49er’s… This was followed by the Victorian rush in the 1850’s and the Eureka Stockade insurrection that followed. The economies of these areas grew enormously. The huge numbers of prospectors and the services they demanded created a lot of wealth (little of which actually came from finding gold).

As a result the provincial Governments were desperate to find gold somewhere within their regions. Several offered rewards to anyone who could find it. New Zealand appeared to have the geology (although that was a relatively new science) so it simply appeared to be a matter of finding it. Early discoveries of ‘colour’ were made in the Coromandel but were unworkable.

Eventually as you know an Australian Gabriel Read discovered gold in Otago in May 1861 and the rush was on. The province exploded, prospectors arrived from all around the world, but especially from Victoria. Many were keen to escape the taxation and corruption of the Australian fields. In Otago they were taxed less and received larger claims to boot.

This was alluvial gold, which could initially be easily found by individuals. Later small groups or collectives formed to extract the gold from the riverbanks.

Eventually gold was also found in the West Coast, Nelson and again in the Coromandel. When news of the discovery on the Coromandel arrived in Auckland, the male population of the city disappeared overnight, emptying stores of pans, shovels and food. Many were disappointed to find the gold locked away in the rock.

These later discoveries were quartz based gold, which required even larger amounts of money, the days of the lone prospector were numbered. Companies formed in Christchurch, Wellington or Auckland were formed to buy the equipment needed to extract the rock and crush it. This needed water or steam power, and the giant stampers which kept Grahamstown (Thames) awake 6 days a week.

Gold remained an important export commodity for much of the century. Its importance lay in the changes it made to the physical and social fabric of New Zealand. Much of the South Island was now settled with towns spread from north to south and east to west. Much of the island had been explored and for a time Dunedin was the country’s largest city. South island run-holders were able to expand as the population gave them a market for their meat. The miners also brought with them a belief in equality and the early ideas of mateship that were also developing in the bush settlements of the north.

The Gate Pa

James Belich argumes that the Maori deliberately created a trap for the British. That the Maori garrison did not evacuate the pa but concealed themselves in underground chambers covered with tree branches and earth.

When the British assault party entered the main redoubt the Maori commenced firing at close range and the assault force could not effectively retaliate.

War in Tauranga

In Tauranga, the local Ngatirangi tribe led by Rawiri Puhirake had been supporters of the Waikato tribes fighting the British. Cameron had sent a small force to camp Te Papa to control the tribe. The Ngatirangi gathered in the Te Papa area to fight the British. They built a pa close to the camp, when this provoked little response, they built one even closer and sent this message:

To the Colonel,
Friend, -Salutations to you. The end of that. Friend, do you give heed to our laws for regulating the fight.Rule 1. If wounded or captured whole, and butt of the musket or hilt of the sword be turned to me, he will be saved.Rule 2. If any Pakeha, being a soldier by name, shall be travelling unarmed and meets me, he will be captured, and handed over to the direction of the law.Rule 3. The soldier who flees, being carried away by his fears, and goes to the house of the priest with his gun (even though carrying arms) will be saved. I will not go there.Rule 4. The unarmed Pakehas, women and children, will be spared.
The end. These are binding laws for Tauranga.

This was just what Cameron wanted. He quickly abandoned the Waiakto and travelled to Taurange with a large force. In all there were over 1700 Imperial and local Militia concentrated at Te Papa. They brought with them some of the heaviest artillery yet …

Belich wrote:

''The concentration of British artillery was of considerable power even in absolute terms. When it is considered that these guns fired unhampered by enemy artillery from a distance of 350 to 800 yards [320 to 730 meters] at a target of less that 3,000 square yards [2,500 square meters], their power appears awesome. Gate Pa was the ultimate test of strength between British and Maori military technologies, between modern artillery and the modern pa. In a wider sense, it was to be the first of many contests between breech-loading, rifled, composite-cast heavy artillery and trench-and-bunker earthworks."

Once again Cameron faced a Modern Pa, but this one was differerent to other fortifications. The pa was shelled from 9am until almost 4pm. When a breach had been made in the defences a force of 300 was sent into the pa. Confusion followed and the force was driven back.

British casualties were more than a third of the assault force with 100 men killed or wounded. Ten officers were killed while 28 non-commissioned officers and privates were killed and 73 wounded. The 43rd Regiment lost 20 killed (including its colonel, Colonel Booth, 4 captains and a lieutenant) and 12 wounded. The 68th Regiment lost 4 killed and 16 wounded. The Naval Brigade lost 13 killed (including virtually all of its officers) and 26 wounded. Total Maori losses were estimated at 25.

In the confusion and rain that followed the Maori garrison faded into the bush.

Two months later a force of 1700 troops routed a 500 of Maori caugt in the middle of building a pa at Te Ranga. This defeat seemed to pacify the Ngatiterangi who surrendered their weapons at Te Papa a month later.

Much of this information came from: http://homepages.ihug.co.nz/~Sxmitch/Battle.html

Orakau Map

Orakau

Cameron had lost interest in the Waikato. He had wanted to draw the Kingite army out into open battle but had been continually frustrated over the 7 month campaign. It seemed that the King would simply continue to withdraw into the interior drawing him further and further from his base of operations. The further he progressed the more troops he needed to protect his lines of communication, the fewer he had to attack the ever larger fortifications that the Maori constructed. Remember it was only 28 years since the decimation of Napoleons Grand Army in the Russian winter. (about 10% made it back to France).

A few Maori who arrived to late for the fighting in the Waikato decided that they would defy the British and despite warnings built a quick pa at Orakau. Rewi Maniapoto was bound by family lines and loyalty to assist at the Pa. Altogether about 300 were in the fortification when the British arrived. To their surprise it lacked the back door route for an easy retreat that other Pa had. Surrounded and under siege the Maori there held out for several days. Lacking water or ammunition they ate raw kumara and fired peach pits at the British.

During the afternoon of the 31st March, 200 Tuwharetoa, under Te Heuheu Horonuku, were seen on a nearby eminence, but well-directed shellfire discouraged their attempt to relieve the pa

Offers to surrender were rejected.

Early in the afternoon of the third day, because he was impressed by the defenders' courage, Cameron sent William Mair forward with a flag of truce to urge the pa to surrender. Rewi replied, “Kaore e mau te rongo, ake, ake!” (“Peace shall never be made, never, never!”) This was conveyed to Mair by Hauraki Tonganui, a Ngati Tuwharetoa chief who was noted for his stentorian voice, and who had been conversing with Mair while Rewi considered the message.

Later another offer was made:

Mair then asked that the women and children be sent out of the pa. While Rewi was considering this, Ahumai Te Paerata, a tall handsome young woman, daughter of the old West Taupo chief Te Paerata, stood up and replied on behalf of the women: “Ki te mate nga tane, me mate ano nga wahine me nga tamariki.” (“If the men die, the women and children must die also.”)

Quotes are from: http://www.teara.govt.nz/1966/O/OrakauSiegeOf/OrakauSiegeOf/en

When a 5th Assault threatened to overwhelm the palisades the defenders choose to leave. The next morning they simply walked through the cordon and then fled for the safety of a nearby swamp. Cavalry chased them down killing many but failed to kill or capture Rewi, who escaped with the bulk of the defenders.

For Maori it seemed to be a defeat but Pakeha seemed to see it as another failure. Once again the Kingites had escaped and their ability to defeat the Maori in a single great engagement.
Then word arrived that an opportunity had presented itself near Tauranga.

Progress in the Waikato

Thanks to nzhistory.net and the NZ Historical Atlas for this image

The war in the Waikato.

Greys intention was always to destroy the base of the King. That meant advancing into the Waikato and attacking him in his Turangawaiwai. His motives were simple. Remove the King and he would remove the one obstacle to establishing (his) hegemony over the country. Colonial Administrators wanted more. Much, much, more. Russell and Whitaker dominated the Government but also had a personal reason for wanting to invade and confiscate Maori land.


Their small cabal of investors were envious of the Maori farms which supplied Auckland and the Australian colonies with produce. They saw great potential if this land could be acquired cheaply (Confiscation is about as cheap as you can get) and then sold at a profit to the ever growing number of settlers arriving in the colony. Maori farms remained communally owned and the Waikato was the seat of the Kingite ‘Land League’ which stubbornly refused to become alienated from any more of its land.



The Settler Government acquired the £3m loan which paid for the arrival of the ‘Fencibles’, militia who would be paid for their service to the Government with grants of land in the confiscated areas, fulfilling two goals. This force meant the Settler government could show that they were playing their part in the war as well as providing a long term force capable of mobilisation at a moments notice (The NZ version of the Minute men?)

The invasion itself went slowly. General Cameron was a professional soldier who had a distinguished career, he was expected to crush the Kingites in short order. The Great South Road made it easy for him to shift men and supplies to the Waikato but not into it. Progress was slow and made even slower by Maori attacks on the fringes of Auckland. This necessitated leaving soldiers behind to protect both Auckland and the supply lines. It took three months to reach Meremere.


In some respects Maori tactics had been to successful. A force of 1500 warriors had erected the Meremere line and waited patiently for the British to arrive. But 3 months was to long and many had been forced to return home, leaving a force to small to defend the fortifications. After a brief fire-fight, which included Maori use of artillery, the defenders melted back into the forest and Cameron marched on.



To Rangiriri, which was again a massive set of fortifications (amongst the worlds largest according to Belich) which ran between the river and a Lake forcing the British to attack head on. Because they controlled the river they were able to land troops behind the line and attack from both sides. Despite this advantage the Maori held out, repulsing several attacks at least one of which reached the central redoubt before being pushed back.




The next morning under what the Maori claimed was a flag of truce, the British captured 180 Maori, the rump of the army that had initially been prepared to fight them – the rest had again disappeared. Not surprisingly within 18 months almost all of these prisoners had escaped.


Cameron marched on.He captured the empty Ngaruawahia, capital of the King. He then reached a third line of fortifications. This was the Paterangi line, even bigger than those at Rangiriri. Intelligence said this was defended by a far larger force than at the previous battle. If a few defenders could hold him back there what could a larger force in better prepared positions do? Cameron decided to repeat his tactics, and bypassed the line by landing at Rangiaowhia, a village the Maori believed to be neutral. Many old people and children were killed when the whare caught alight during the fighting here. It is here that John Bryce won his medal for bravery (we’ll talk about this later) Afterwards when Cameron advanced on Paterangi he again found it abandoned. The King and most of his followers had again vanished travelling south into the fastness of the Maniapoto

Lies, damned lies and the (Great South) road to war.

Grey returned perhaps expecting that his old policies (Flour & Sugar) would continue to work. Maori and Pakeha relations had changed with the Settlers determined to enforce the dominance of the British empire and their right to wastelands. Maori for their part appear determined to retain control of their lands, and Greys platitudes no longer worked.

Grey wanted to attack the King but lacked necessary resources. In particular he needed more troops. He could get some troops from local militia but not the thousands of professional troops he wanted.

The Imperial Government would not give him troops without good reason. Grey had no valid reason so he lied. Then he lied some more, and some more. In the ‘wars’ video Belich mentions the drunken rambling of the Maori called Whare who talked about a planned attack on Auckland. It was this ‘threat’ that Grey continued to hammer on about, much as Busby had harped on about the French threat in the 1830’s.

Why the Maori would attack their best market Grey never explained. What they would achieve by driving the Pakeha out of New Zealand was never explained. However I guess within the Colonial Office the idea that natives might resent them and want to kill them wasn’t far from their thoughts (of course they would be confirmed in the Indian Mutiny of 1857). So the Colonial Office sent troops, lots and lots of troops. Thousands of troops.

As 1862 moved into 1863 Greys war machine grew,

The Government for its own part took out a £3m loan secured by the promise of confiscated lands. It recruited troops from Australia on the promise of free land. While Dommett was Premier he was supported by Russell and Whitaker as representative of Auckland pushed hard for the war and would profit spectacularly from the confiscations.

So Grey assured Maori he did not seek war but would ‘dig around the King’. Meanwhile he built his army and then built the Great South Road pointing into the heart of the Waikato.

Once he had an army capable of defeating the King, Grey set about starting the war. The Mangatawhiri Stream lay on the Kings border, north was settler Auckland, south was the Kingitanga. Crossing the stream meant war.

In July he crossed the stream but backdated the declaration that any Maori who did not acknowledge the Queens authority would be in rebellion.

The Waikato War had started.

Forcing the Issue

The end of the Wellington Wars did not settle anything in particular apart from enforcing the NZ Companys claims to land around some of its settlements. Grey stayed until called to South Africa. At that point he allowed a new Constitution to be introduced. This established the Provincial System. At last the settlers had a voice in Government but to their annoyance the Governor retained control over Native affairs, denying them access to Maori land. Land (via pre-emption) remained under the control of the Governor.

Despite this Maori land continued to be alienated. Donald McLean acting on behalf of the Governor was able to buy large areas of land, but not in areas which were most desired by settlers (especially in the Taranaki) remained out of their reach.

In a reaction to the continued loss of land and the consequent loss of rangatiratanga and mana over their land some Maori began to seek an alternative. The Queen represented the Pakeha, Maori should have their own King. Eventually Te Wherwhero accepted the mantle becoming King Potatau.

The Kingitanga represented a challenge to settler aspirations and the Governments purse. For settlers it also represented a defiance of British control of New Zealand. They could not countenance a separatist King in a British New Zealand.

The King and his supporters saw it in a different light. Besides now representing Maori (the red, black and white threads) he was keen to work with the Government. Because of the perceived threat the Governors however lost faith in him.

Governor Gore Brown it seems was determined to force the issue of who controlled the country. When Teira offered him land at Waitara it seemed a golden opportunity to show the power of Britain. Unfortnately Teira had only a minor claim to the area. Wiremu Kingi (te Atiawa) had a stronger claim and so did the Waikato who had driven the Te Atiawa off the land during the Musket Wars.

When the war broke out the British and settlers found themselves surrounded and penned into New Plymouth. The ring of modern Pa which encircled the town became a challenge which first Colonel Gold then General Pratt unsuccessfully attacked with cannon then sap.

Neither seemed to appreciate the tactic that kept them occupied with relatively unimportant military targets. The war meandered along with the Maori out-digging the Imperial Troops.

The involvement of Kingitanga warriors appeared to confirm the Pakeha belief that the King intended to enforce a Land League and to stand in the way of British law by stopping the sale by Teira of the Waitara. The challenge to the rule of law seems to have been a Government preoccupation, as many settlers recognised the weakness of Teiras claim to the land.

The end of the war was claimed as victory by the returning Grey although his failure to punish the ‘rebels’ seems to indicate the weak case that they had and their inability to defeat an enemy who would not stay still. As it happens Grey believed he needed to strike at the heart of Maori resistance – the King in the Waikato

A State Religion?

It seems hard to ignore the irony at Destiny Church storming meeting the Waitangi Marae to demand the Government enforce Christianity as the state religion today. The meeting at Waitangi of course was to support religious diversity. I'm sorry but if Destiny Church acknowledge the Treaty as our founding document then they must either accept the (unwritten) 4th article that established religious freedom OR recognise that religion isn't mentioned in the other 3 articles at all. You could argue that "taonga" might include religion, but in 1840 Christianity was hardly the dominant religion amongst all Maori and since the majority of Pakeha (in Kororareka especially) were hardly the most God fearing of people.

Wellington to Whanganui

Once he had successfully claimed victory and then negotiated a relatively benevolent peace with Heke and Kawiti, Grey sailed southward. Tensions remained high around Wellington with both Te Rauparaha and Te Rangihaeata having moved north to their traditional lands. Their presence tended to dampen the claims of Settlers to areas they coveted – the fertile Hutt being one area. Rangihaeata claimed Ngati Toa had never sold this land and it was off limits to settlers.

Grey had far more muscle than Fitzroy had enjoyed and was prepared to use it. He immediately expelled the occupants of one Pa and prepared to fight. Local Maori became engaged in a short war, with engagements at the Gillespie’s and later at Boulcott’s farm. There was disagreement amongst Ngati Toa about who to support with some opposing the fighting because of the perceived effect on Pakeha trading (Just like Ngapuhi had in the War in the North). This split was worsened when Grey took the pre-emptive step of kidnapping the neutral Te Rauparaha.

Te Rangihaeata moved to Pauatahanui and then when threatened by other Maori (but NOT by advancing British troops) fled northward to the Manawatu.

Te Mamaku who had supported Rangihaeata fled back to the Whanganui and briefly threatened the settlement there. Again local Maori objected to the potential loss of trade and failed to support him.

Thus, ended the very brief, Wellington War. One thing that stands out here is the ruthlessness that Grey displayed in forcing a war with Ngati Toa and in kidnapping and imprisoning Te Rauparaha without ever charging him. (Habeus Corpus anyone?). The other thing that stands out was in the way that Iwi and Hapu could be seduced by the lure of European goods and turn on each other if necessary. The term Kupapa is not generally used, but in 1845-7 Maori were already fighting other Maori in the service of the Queen (although they would say for their own reasons).